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Health benefits – linked to particular studies conducted
This information is not intended as medical advice. People with medical questions should consult their physician or health professional.}
Cholesterol reduction
By now, Americans are well aware of the need to lower cholesterol levels in order to lower the risks of heart attacks and strokes, the number one cause of death. Besides dietary improvements, the search is underway to identify natural foods having a cholesterol reducing effect, such as fish oil or bran.
Spirulina is one of these foods. In Japan, thirty male employees with high cholesterol, mild hypertension, and hyperlipidemia showed lower serum cholesterol, triglyceride and LDL (undesirable fat) levels after eating Spirulina for eight weeks. These men did not change their diet, except adding Spirulina.
Group A consumed 4.2 grams (about eight tablets) daily for eight weeks. Total serum cholesterol dropped a significant 4.5% within four weeks from 244 to 233. Group B consumed Spirulina for four weeks, then stopped. Serum cholesterol decreased but then returned to the initial level. Researches found triglyceride levels decreased slightly and LDL cholesterol decreased a significant 6.1% within four weeks. The reduction of serum cholesterol was even greater in those men with the highest cholesterol levels.
This study conducted by the Department of Internal Medicine of Tokia University concluded that Spirulina did lower serum cholesterol and was likely to have a favourable effect on alleviating heart disease since the arteriosclerosis index improved. No adverse effects were noted. The study did not speculate on how it lowered cholesterol.7
Researches in West Germany had previously discovered cholesterol reduction during a weight loss study with Spirulina.8 Japanese research showed lower cholesterol without weight loss, suggesting that cholesterol reduction was not related to weight loss. Spirulina was chosen because previously lowered serum cholesterol in rats. 9,10
A recent study with rats attempted to find the compound in Spirulina that lowered serum cholesterol. Researchers discovered that the benefit may be through its effect on metabolism of lipoproteins. The oil soluble portion was found to suppress cholesterol levels in serum and liver of rats. 1.1
References
7. Nayaka, N. et al. Cholesterol lowering effects of Spirulina. Tokai Univ. Japan. Nutrition Reports Int’l. June 1988, Vol 37, No. 6, 1329-1337. Nakaya, N. Effect of Spirulina on reduction of serum cholesterol. Tokai Univ Progress in Med. Nov, 1986, Vol, No 11
8.Becker, E. W et al. Clinical and biochemical evaluations of Spirulina with regards to its application in the treatment of obesity. Inst. Chem, Pfanz. Nutrition Reports international, April 1986, Vol 33. No. 4 p. 565.
9.Devi, M. A. and Venkataramaam, L. V. Hypoholesterolemic effect of blue green-green algae Spirulina platenisis in albino rats. Nutrition Reports International, 1983, 28:519-530
10. Kato, T. and Takemoto, K. Effects of Spirulina on hypercholestrolemia and fatty liver in rats. Saitama Med. College. Japan. Japan Nutr Foods Assoc. Jour. 1984, 37:321.
11. Iwata, K. et al. Effects of Spirulina on plasma lipoprotein lipase activity in rats, Journal Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol 1990, 36:165-171.
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Natural beta-carotene and cancer prevention
Cancer is the number two cause of premature deaths in Americans. Increasing cancer rates seem to be caused by environmental factors, especially diet. Scientists are examining foods and substances having protective factors. Beta-carotene is one of the most well known natural anti-cancer substances. Over the past twenty [20] years, cancer health authorities, National Cancer Institute and dozens of publicized studies have shown evidence that eating vegetables rich in beta-carotene reduces the risk of all kinds of cancer.
Beta-carotene is the main source of vitamin A for humans. Our bodies convert beta-carotene to vitamin A as we need it. Although very high dosages of vitamin A supplements are toxic, high amounts of beta-carotene from foods and supplements are safe. Spirulina is the richest beta-carotene food known, having over ten [10] times more beta-carotene than any other food, including carrots.
Beta-carotene is one of the most effective substances for deactivating free radicals, which damage the cells, leading to cancer. Free radicals are molecular fragments from environmental pollution, toxic chemicals, drugs, and physical and emotional stress.
Beta-carotene prevents free radicals from reacting, and decreases incidence of lung pre-chromosome damage and enhances immunological resistance.
Over 100 animal studies confirm Vitamin A and Beta-carotene inhibit the development of various cancers and tumours. Many human epidemiological studies correlated high Vitamin A intake with decreased cancer risks. 12 Beta-carotene (and not the preformed Vitamin A from animal sources) correlated with lower cancer rates. 13
Over 15 studies from 1975-1986 correlated lower incidence of lung cancer with beta-carotene and vitamin A. One study found the lower the serum level of beta-carotene, the higher the incidence of lung cancer. 14 Nine [9] studies from 1974-1986 correlated lower digestive tract cancer (oral, stomach, colon, gastrointestinal) with beta-carotene and vitamin A. Two [2] studies with women correlated lower breast cancer and cervix cancer. A five [5] year study in China completed in 1993 with 29,000 people daily dosages of beta-carotene, vitamin E and selenium reduced the incidence of cancer deaths by 13%. 15
In 1982, the famous monograph “Diet, Nutrition and Cancer” published by the US National Research Council reviewed this overwhelming literature. It concluded, “the epidemiological evidence is sufficient to suggest that foods rich in carotenes or Vitamin A are associated with a reduced risk of cancer.” The study recommended a diet including beta-carotene rich vegetables to reduce cancer risks. 16
In 1987 Israeli study demonstrated natural beta-carotene is more effective than synthetic. The body better assimilates natural beta-carotene because it contains the 9-cis Caroteniods isomer, lacking in synthetic carotene molecules. This means beta-carotene in algae and vegetables greater antioxidant power than synthetic beta-carotene. 17
Controversy arose in 1995 when synthetic beta-carotene was found ineffective preventing cancer in Finnish and US smokers, and could even be harmful. Yet, these studies were flawed. Researches chose only synthetic beta-carotene lacking the cis isomer and gave high mega doses, which may have caused nutrient imbalance. These studies reinforced the interest in natural carotenoids in whole foods.
References
12.Petro, R. et al. Can dietary beta-carotene reduce human cancer rates? Nature, 1981.290:201-208.
13.Shekelle, R. B. et al. Dietary Vitamin A and risk of cancer in Western Electric study. Lancer, 1981. 8257:1185-1189.
14.Menkes, et al. Serum Beta-carotene, vitamins A and E, selenium, and risk of lung cancer. Johns Hopkins, N.E. Journal of Medicine, Nov 1986, p. 1250
15.Blot. William. Journal of National Cancer Institute. Sept. 15. 1993.
16.National Research Council. Diet, Nutrition and Cancer. National Academy Press Washington DC, 1982.
17.Ben Amotz, A. Presentation to Polysaccharides from microaglae workshop. Duke University, 1987
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Anti-cancer tumour effects
Because it is the richest natural beta-carotene food, Spirulina has been tested for anti-vcancer effects. The Harvard University School of Dental Medicine reduced oral cancer cells with Spirulina extracts. A beta-carotene solution applied to cancerous tumors in mouths of hamsters reduced the number and size of tumors or caused them to disappear. 18 When beta-carotene extracts was fed to twenty [20] hamsters pre-treated to develop mouth cancer, none developed the disease. Tissue samples contained an immune stimulating substance believed to have destroyed cancer cells before they could multiply.19
In 1995, Spirulina reversed oral cancer in pan tobacco chewers in Kerala, India. Complete regression of oral leukoplakia was found in 45% of those using one gram a day for one [1] year, compare to only 7% with a placebo. Within one [1] year of discontinuing Spirulina, 45% of the lesions returned. This was the first human study of its chemo preventive potential.20
Evidence linking natural beta-carotene and cancer prevention is impressive. For those who do not eat 4-9 servings of fruit and vegetables daily, Spirulina will add natural carotene insurance.
References
18.Shwartz, J. Scklar, G. Suda, D. Inhibition of experimental oral carcinogen sis by topical beta-carotene. Harvard School of Dental Med. Carcinogen sis, May 1986, 7(5) 711-715.
19.Shwartz, J. Scklar, G. Suda, D. Growth, inhibition and destruction of oral cancer cells by extracts of Spirulina. Cancer & Nutrition. 6/88.
20.Babu, M. et al. Evaluation of Chemo prevention of oral cancer with Spirulina. Nutrition and Cancer V. 24, No. 2 p. 197-202, 1995.
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Phycocyanin enhances the immune system.
Part of the global effect to identify natural substances with an immune system boosting or anti-cancer effect focuses on blue-green algae. One unusual Phytonutrient in blue-green algae is natural blue protein pigment, Phycocyanin.
In research in Japan, mice with liver cancer took Phycocyanin orally. The survival rate of the treatment group was significantly higher than the control group not given Phycocyanin. After five [5] weeks, 90% of the Phycocyanin group survived, but only 25% of the control group. After eight [8] weeks, 25% of the Phycocyanin group still survived, yet none of the control group was alive. This suggests eating Phycocyanin increases survival of cancer stricken organisms.
In another study, after two [2] weeks the white blood cells (lymphocyte activity) of a Phycocyanin group were higher than the control group and higher than or equal to a normal group without cancer. This suggests Phycocyanin raises lymphocyte activity.21
The lymph system’s general function is to maintain healthy organs in the body, and protect against cancer, ulcers, bleeding piles and other diseases. These results suggest Phycocyanin acts not by a limited attack on local cancer, but by strengthening the body’s resistance through the lymph system. Phycocyanin may be active in preventing a host of degenerative organ diseases by increasing immunity.
A Japanese patent states a small dosage of Phycocyanin daily maintains or accelerates normal control cell functions that prevents generation of malignancy such as cancer or inhibits its growth or recurrence. 22 The patent recommends a Phycocyanin dosage in a range of 0.25 to 2.5 grams per day. Spirulina from Earthrise Farms, California and Siam Algae, Thailand have high 15% Phycocyanin content. This means the patent recommended adult dosage would be filled by consuming 1.7 to 17 grams per day, making about ten [10] grams a day a useful level.
Chinese scientist documented Phycocyanin stimulates haematopoiesis (creation of blood), emulating the hormone erythropoetin (EPO). EPO is produced by healthy kidneys and regulates bone marrow stem cell production of the red blood cells. They claim Phycocyanin regulated white blood cell production, even when toxic chemicals or radiation damages bone marrow stem cells. 23
References
21.Lijima, N. Shimamatsu, H., et al. (inventors: Dainippon Ink x Chemicals assignee). Anti-tumor agent and method of treatment therewith. US patent pending ref. P1150-726-A82679. App. 15 Sep 1982
22.Dainippon Ink x Chemicals and Tokyo Kenkyukai (inventors and assignee) Anti-tumoral agents containing phycobilin-also used to treat ulcers and haemorrhoidal bleeding. 1983. JP 58065216A830418.
23.Zhang Cheng-Wu. et al. Effects of polysaccharide and Phycocyanin from Spirulina on peripheral blood and haematopoietic system of bone marrow in mice. Second Asia-Pacific Conf. Ibid. April. 1994.
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Polysaccharides enhance the immune system
In 1979, Russian scientists published initial research on the immune stimulating effects on rabbits from lip-polysaccharides in Spirulina.24 More recent studies in China and Japan have shown polysaccharide extracts increase macrophage function, antibody production and infection fighting T-cells.
In 1991-94 in China, polysaccharides and Phycocyanin from Spirulina increased immunity in mice by enhancing bone marrow reproduction, growth of thymus and spleen and biosynthesis of serum protein. 25,26,27,28 In 1993 in Japan, hamsters treated with a polysaccharide extract had better recovery rates when infected with a herpes virus. 3 In 1996, a water extract unique to Spirulina, Calcium Spirulan, inhibited replication of HIV-1, Herpes Simplex and other viruses, yet was very safe for human cells.2
In the USA, a water-soluble extract increased macrophage activity in chickens. In further 1993-96 studies, chickens fed a diet with less than 1% Spirulina showed improved immune performance without any adverse side effects. The whole immune system array of killer cells, helper cells antibody production was supercharged. 29,30 Similar benefits were found for cats. 31
Researches are testing the theory that Spirulina and its extracts act much like a broad spectrum vaccine against bacteria. Because it is a safe natural food, this research has created a sensation among animal scientists. They are scrambling to replace ineffective antibiotics with probiotics that strengthen the immune system and prevent disease. Based on this animal research, as little as 3 grams per day may be effective for humans. 32
In 1996, US scientists announced on-going research, documenting that a water extract of Spirulina inhibits HIV-1 replication in human derived T-cells and in human blood mononuclear cells.1 HIV-1 is the AIDS virus. Small amounts of the extract reduce viral replication, while higher concentration totally stopped its reproduction. The extract seemed to prevent the virus from penetrating the cell membrane, therefore the virus was unable to replicate. This Spirulina extract was non-toxic to human cells. The scientists said this was only preliminary research, to be followed by animal and human studies.
References
24.Besednova, T. et al. Immunune-ostimulating activity of lip polysaccharides in blue-green algae. Zhumal Mikrobiologii, Epidemiologii, immunobiologii, 56 (12) p. 75-79. 1979
25.Baojiang, G. et. Al. Study on effect and mechanism of polysaccharides of Spirulina on body immune function improvement. Second Asia-Pacific Conference on Algal Biotechnology. Singapore, April 1994. p. 24.
26.Zhang Cheng-Wu, et. Al. Effects of polysaccharides and Phycocyanin from Spirulina on peripheral blood and haematopoietic system of bone marrow in mice. Second Asia Pacific Conf. Ibid, April. 1994.
27.Qishen, P. et. Al. End nuclease activity and repair DNA synthesis by polysaccharide of Spirulina. Acta Genetics Sinica (Chinese J. of Genetics) V.15(5) p. 374-381. 1988
28.Lisheng, L. et. al. Inhibitive effect and mechanism of polysaccharide of Spirulina on transplanted tumor cells in mice. Marine Sciences, Qindao, China. N.5. 1991. p. 33-38
29.Qureshi, M. et. Al. Spirulina extract enhances chickens macrophage functions after in vitro exposure. J. Nutritional Immunology, V.3(4) 1995. p. 35-45.
30.Qureshi, M.. et. Al. Dietary Spirulina enhances humoral and cell-mediated immune functions in chickens immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, 1996
31.Qureshi, M. et. Al. Spirulina exposure enhances macrophage phagocytic function in cats. Immunopharmacology and Immunotoxicology, 1996.
32.Belay, A., Henson, R., Ota, Y. Potential Pharmaceutical Substances from Aqua culturally Produced Spirulina. Earthrise Farms, Cal-patria CA. presented to World Aquaculture Society, New Orleans. Jan. 1994
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Sulfolipid extracts from blue-green algae stop HIV virus
The Natural Products branch of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) is searching the world for natural plants and organisms that have biologically active anti-cancer agents. The famous periwinkle plant in the Madagascar rain forests is one example of a new cancer cure. Having scoured terrestrial organisms, scientists are now looking towards the sea.
NCI scientists have screened 18,000 extracts of marine organisms for activity against tumors, viruses and fungi and for immune system stimulation properties. Extracts of sea squirts, sea whip soft corals, and sea sponges offer potential new drugs.
In 1996, the NCI began studying thousands of types of blue-green algae for effects against the AIDS virus and 100 types of cancer. In 1989, the NCI announced that chemicals from blue-green algae were found to be “remarkably active” against the AIDS virus. 33 These are the naturally occurring Sulfolipid portions of the Glycolipids. Sulfolipids can prevent viruses from either attaching to or penetrating into cells, thus preventing viral infection.
NCI emphasized that a larger testing program including tests on humans with the AIDS virus would not begin until Sulfolipids can be obtained in much larger quantities. These scientists further speculated that if Sulfolipids proved effective, used in combination with drugs like AZT, they would be safer and more effective.
Scientists used extracts of the blue-green algae lyngbya, phormidium, oscillatoria (a member of the Spirulina family) and anabaena. Spirulina is known to contain Glycolipids and Sulfolipids. 34 It contains 5-8% lipids, and of that, about 40% are Glycolipids, and 2-5% are Sulfolipids. 35 Analysis by Earthrise Farms revealed it has about 1% Sulfolipids. Blue-green algae can be cultivated in ways to significantly increase the lipids, and presumably, the Sulfolipids. This means it could be grown on a large scale for extraction of this valuable anti-cancer and anti-AIDS substance.
In 1996, NCI scientists announced another extract from the blue-green algae nostoc, cyanovirin-n, could be a broad-spectrum virucidal agent against HIV. This unique antiviral protein was selected for further high-priority pre-clinical development.36
References
33.Gustafson K. et. al. AIDS-Antiviral Sulfolipids from cyan bacteria (blue-green algae). Journal of the National Cancer Institute. August 16. 1989. p. 1254
34.Kataoka, N. and Misaki, A. Glycolipids isolation from Spirulina maxima: structure and fatty acid composition Agric. Biol, Chem. 47 (10), 2349-2355. 1983.
35.Venkataraman, L.V. and Becker, E.W, Biotechnology x Utilization of Algae- The Indian experience. Sharada Press Mangalore. India, 1985. p. 114-115
36.Boyd, M, Gustafason, K. et. al. Cyanovin-N, a novel HIV-inactivating protein that targets viral GP120. Am. Soc. of Pharmacognosy. UC Santa Cruz. July 27-31, 1996.
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Reduces kidney and liver toxins from mercury, drugs and chemical pollutants
Kidneys play an essential role in cleansing the body of toxins. Heavy metals and many drugs are known to be toxic to the kidneys. Scientist are interested in substances that can help cleanse the kidneys of toxic side effects from heavy metal poisoning or from high intake of medicines or pharmaceutical drugs.
In Japan, Spirulina reduced kidney nephrology-toxicity from mercury and three pharmaceutical drugs in laboratory rats. 37 Scientists measured two indicators of kidney toxicity-blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum creatinine. When rats were fed a diet with 30% Spirulina, BUN and serum creatinine levels decreased dramatically.
Similar effects were observed when rats were given common drug medications: para-aminophenol (painkiller), Gentamicin (antibiotic) and Cis-dichloro-diaminoplatinum (anti-cancer drug) In all cases, the Spirulina diet greatly decreased BUN and serum creatinine levels, and in two cases, brought serum creatinine down to original levels.
In a follow up, urinary extraction of two [2] enzymes were measured as further indicators of renal function. The activities of both were significant reduced in the group fed 30% Spirulina. The effective compound responsible for the suppression of renal toxicity was the water-soluble extract, Phycocyanin.38
These studies suggest Spirulina may have a beneficial effect for human suffering from heavy metal poisoning. They also suggest kidney side effects from pharmaceutical drugs may decrease when it is eaten with the administration of drugs. Side effects limit the dosage of many drugs, slowing the recovery period. With clinical use in hospitals or with outpatients, higher dosages of such drugs and shorter recovery times may be possible. In any event, study of the kidney cleansing effect offers an insight into the cleansing effects people have reported while fasting.
A 1997 study found liver detoxification of chemical dioxins (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins). The faecal excretion of dioxins was 7 to 11 times higher for rats on a treatment diet of chlorophyll rich foods (20% chlorella, 20% Spirulina or 2% chlorophyllin). These findings suggest chlorella, Spirulina and chlorophyllin are useful as a new approach in the treatment of patients exposed to lipophilic zenobiotics.38A
References
37.Yamane, Y. The effect of Spirulina on nephrotoxicity in rats. Presented at annual Sym. of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan Apr. 15, 1988, Chiba Univ. Japan.
38.Fukino, H. et. al. Effect of Spirulina on the renal toxicity induced by inorganic mercury and cisplatin. Eisei Kagaku. 1990, 36:5
38A. Morita, T. et. al. Effect of chlorella, Spirulina and chlorophyllin on faecal extraction of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins in rats. Fukuouka Institute. Japan Journal Toxicology and Environmental Health 1997, 43(1)
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Effects against diabetes and hypertension
Spirulina may have a positive effect against diabetes. A water-soluble fraction was found to be effective in lowering the serum glucose level at fasting while the water-insoluble fraction suppressed glucose loading.39. It may also reduce blood pressure. In a recent study with rats, it was found to reduce high blood pressure. 40
References
39.Takai, Y. et. al. Effect of water soluble fractions of Spirulina over serum lipids and glucose resistance in rats. J. Jap. Soc. Nutr. Food Sci. 1991, 44: 273-277
40.Iwata, K. et. al. Effects of Spirulina on plasma lipoprotein lipase activity in rats. Journal Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 1990, 36:165-171
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Builds healthy lactobacillus
Healthy lactobacillus in the intestines provides humans with three major benefits: better digestive and absorption, protection from infection, and stimulation of the immune system. For these reasons, many people take lactobacillus supplements.
Research in Japan showed Spirulina increased lactobacillus in rats 3 times over a control group. A diet with 5% Spirulina for 100 days showed 1) caecum weight increased 13%, 2) lactobacillus increased by 327% and 3) Vitamin B1 inside the caecum increased 43%. 41 Since Spirulina did not supply this additional B1, it improved B1 absorption. The study suggests Spirulina should increase lactobacillus in humans and increase absorption of B1 and other dietary vitamins.
This has implications for AIDS. Some researches believe the inability to absorb nutrients in the intestines can cause immune deficiency. The absence of lactobacillus leads to thriving infections. Nutrient mal-absorptions with ‘opportunistic infections’ can initiate full-blown AIDS. One strategy for halting the progression of AIDS is based on supplementation (to correct mal-absorption) and lactobacillus (to maintain proper intestinal Flora and prevent infection).42
References
41.Tokai, Y. et. al. Effects of Spirulina on caecum content in rats. Chiba Hygiene College Bulletin (Japan). Feb. 1987, Vol. 5, No.2.
42.Archer, D.L. and Glinsmann, W.H. Intestinal infection and malnutrition initiate AAIDS. US FDA. Nutrition Research, 1985. 5:19-19. Archer, D.L. and Glinsmann, W.H. Enteric infections and other cofactors in AIDS. Immunology Today, 1985, Vol. 6, no. 10
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Wound healing and antibiotic effects
People have used Spirulina in face creams and body wraps, and are reports of people taking it in baths to promote skin health. The Kanembu people in Chad use freshly harvested algae as a skin poultice for treating certain diseases.
Pharmaceutical compounds in France containing Spirulina accelerated wound healing. Patients used whole Spirulina, raw juice and extracts in creams, ointments, solutions and suspensions. 43 A study in Japan showed cosmetic packs containing Spirulina and its enzymatic hydrolyzates promoted skin metabolism and reduced scars.44
Additional research showed extracts of Spirulina inhibited the growth of bacteria, yeast and fungi.45, 46. The antibiotic substances in these extracts may have medical applications.
References
43.Clement, G. et. al. (inventors; Institute Francais de Petrol, assignee.) Wound treating medicaments containing algae. Fr. M. 5279 (Int. Cl. A61k), 11 Sep. 1967.
44.Yoshida, R. Spirulina hydrolyzates for cosmetic packs. Japan. Kokai 7731.838 (Int. Cl. A61k7100).10 Mar. 1977.
45.Martinez-Nadal. N.G. Anti-microbial activity of Spirulina. X Intl Cong. of Microbiology. Mexico City, Aug. 1970
46.Jorjani, G., Amirani, P. Anti-bacterial activities of Spirulina. Maj. Limy Puz Danisk. Judi Shap. 1978, 1:14-18
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Benefits for malnourished children
As little as 10 grams a day brings rapid recovery from malnutrition, especially for infants. Spirulina was given to undernourished children in Mexico. 47 and adults 48 with beneficial results. It was more that 10% of their diet and no adverse effects were noted.
In Togo, rapid recovery of malnourished infants was reported in a village clinic. Children given 10 to 15 grams per day mixed with millet, water and spices, recovered in several weeks. 49 In India, large scale studies with pre-school children showed carotenes in Spirulina helped children recover from symptoms of Vitamin A deficiency. 50, 51
In Romania, tablets were given to patients with nutritional deficiencies in a Bucharest municipal clinic. Patients had suffered weight loss in conjunction with chronic pancreatitus, rheumatoid arthritis, anemia, diabetes and other symptoms. The patients gained weight and their health improved. 52
In China Spirulina was prescribed at Nanjing Children’s Hospital as a ‘baby nourishing formula’ with baked barley sprouts. 27 of 30 children aged two [2] to six [6] recovered in a short period from baby appetite, night sweat, diarrhoea and constipation. The researches concluded this a genuine health food for children. 53 In another study, children deficient in the essential mineral zinc, made more rapid recovery with high zinc Spirulina than a standard zinc supplement. 54
References
47.Ramos Galvan, R. Clinical experimentation with Spirulina. Colloque sur la valeur nutritionelle des alques Spirulina, Rueill, May 1973. Nat. Inst. Of Nutrition, Mexico City.
48.Sautier, C. and Tremolieres, J. Food value of Spirulina in humans. Ann. Nutrition Alim, 1976, 30:517-534. (French)
49.Fox, R.D. Algoculture: Spirulina, hope for a hungry world. Pub, by Edisud, Aix-en Province, France. 1986
50.Seshadri, C.V. Large Scale Nutritional Supplementation with Spirulina alga. All India Project. Shri Amm Murugappa Chettiar Research Centre (MCRC) Madras. 1993
51.Annapurna, V. et. al. Bio-viability of Spirulina carotenes in pre-school children. National Institute of Nutrition Hyderabad, India. J.Clin. Bio-chem Nutrition. 10. p. 145-151. 1991.
52.Fica, V. et. al. Observations on the utilization of Spirulina as a nutritive factor in treating diseases accompanied by a nutritional defiency. Clinica ll Medicala, Municipiului, Bucuresti. Med Interna 36(3), 1984.
53.Miao Jian Ren. Spirulina in Jiangxi China. Academy of Agriculture Science. Jiangxi province, China. Paper presented at Soc. Appl. Algology, Lille, France. Sep. 1987.
54.Yonghuang, W. et al. The study on curative effect of zinc containing Spirulina for zinc deficient children. Shenzhen Blue-Green Algal Biotech. Corp. Capital Medical College. Beijing, 5th Int’l Phyco Cong. Qingdao China. June 1994.
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Iron bio-availability and correction of anemia
Iron is the most common mineral deficiency worldwide. Iron anemia is prevalent in women, children, older people, and especially women on weight loss diets. Iron is essential for healthy red blood cells and a strong immune system, but typical iron supplements are not well absorbed by the human body. Because Spirulina is known to have a very high iron content, it was tested against a typical iron supplement, Spirulina fed rats absorbed 60% more iron than rats fed the iron supplement, suggesting there is a highly available form of iron in Spirulina. 55 An earlier study showed it corrected anemia in rats.56
In Japan, eight young women had been limiting their meals to stay thin, and showed hypo chronic anemia D lower than normal blood haemoglobin content. After four grams of Spirulina after each meal, in 30 days, blood haemoglobin content increased 21% from 10.9 to 13.2, a satisfactory level, no longer considered anaemic.57
Athletes in intensive training can suffer from non-anaemic iron deficit, with clinical symptoms such as exhaustion and muscle fatigue. A 1998 study with Macedonian male and female athletes taking Spirulina for two months showed a distinct rise in iron reserves. This simple dietary modification can eliminate iron deficit symptoms and optimise athletic health and physical capacity. 57A
References
55.Johnson, P., Schubert, E. Availability of iron in rats from Spirulina, a blue-green algae. Nutrition Research 1986, Vol. 6. 85-94.
56.Takemoto, K. Iron transfers from Spirulina to blood in rats. Saitama Medical College. Japan. 1982.
57.Takeuchi, T. Clinical experiences of administration of Spirulina to patients with hypo chronic anaemia. Tokyo Medical and Dental Univ., Japan. 1978.
57A.Trojacanec. Z. et al. Influence of extensive training on the number of erythrocytes and haemoglobin level and its correction, Inst. for Physiology, Skopje, Macedonia. XXIV FIMS World Congress of Sports Medicine. June 1998.
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GLA and prostaglandin stimulation
Foods high in saturated fats, typical of the American diet, may block the beneficial work of essential fatty acids in the human body, leading to many disease conditions.
Gamma Linolenic acid (GLA), an essential fatty acid, is a precursor of the body’s prostaglandin, master hormones that control many body functions. The prostaglandin PGE1 is involved in many tasks including regulation of blood pressure, cholesterol synthesis, inflammation and cell proliferation. PGE1 is usually formed from dietary Linolenic acid, and the GLA progresses to PGE1.58 Dietary saturated fats and alcohol and other factors may inhibit this process, resulting in GLA deficiency and suppressed PGE1 formation.59
Numerous studies have shown GLA deficiency may figure in degenerative diseases and other health problems. Clinical studies show dietary intake of GLA can help depression; aging symptoms and schizophrenia also have been ascribed partially to GLA deficiency. 64
A source of dietary GLA may help conditions of heart disease, pre-mental stress, obesity, arthritis and alcoholism.65 In Spain, the GLA in Spirulina and evening primrose oil is prescribed for treatment of various chronic health problems.66
The few known sources of GLA include two foods, human milk and Spirulina, and oil of the evening primrose plant, black current and borage seeds. Ten grams of Spirulina has over 100 mg of GLA. This high amount of GLA is well documented.67,68,69 It is about 5% essential fatty acids and 20% of this GLA.
References
58.Jassby, Alan. Nutritional and Therapeutic Properties of Spirulina. Protues Corp. 1983.
59.Tudge, C. Why we could all need the evening primrose. New Scientist Nov. 19981. 506:23.
60.Kunkel, S.L. et al. Suppression of chronic inflammation by evening primrose oil. Progress in Lipids, 1982, Vol. 20. p. 885-888
61.Kerrnof, P.B.A. et al. Anti-thrombotic potential of DGLA in man. British Med. Journal, 1977, 2:1441-1444.
62.Vadaddi, K.S., Horrobin, D.F. Weight loss produced by evening primrose oil. IRSC Med. Sci. 1979, 7:52.
63.Huang, Y.S. et al. Biological effects of zinc deficiency corrected by GLA. Atheroscelosis, 1982, 41:193-208.
64.Horrobin, D.F. The possible roles of prostaglandin E1 and od essential fatty acids in anaemia, depression and alcoholism. Progress in Lipids, 1981, Vol. 20, 539-541. Horrobin, D.F. Loss of delta-6-desaturase activity as a key factor in aging. Med Hypotheses, 1981, 7:1211-1220.
65.Passwater, R.A. Evening primrose oil. Keats Publishing Co. New Canaan. CT. 1981
66. Lopez-Ramero, D. Gamma Linolenic acid as a base of treatment for infirmities with evening primrose oil and Spiru;ina. Med. Holistica, Madrid, Spain, 12 Oct. 1987.
67.Hudson and Karlis. The lipids of the algae Spirulina. J. Sci Food Agric, 1974 25:759
68.Nichols, B. Wood, B. The occurrence and biosynthesis of gamma Linolenic acid in Spirulina platensis. Lipids 1986, Vol. 3, No. 1, 46-50.
69.Roughhan, P. Grattan. Spirulina: Source of dietary Gamma-Linolenic acid? J. Sci. Food Agric. 1989,47. 85-93.
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Weight loss research
Researches in Germany used 15 human volunteers to test an appetite reducing effect. Obese outpatients, who were following a weight reduction diet, took Spirulina tablets before each meal three times a day for four weeks. In this double blind crossover study against a placebo, about 6 tablets three times a day over four weeks showed a small but statistically significant reduction of body weight. There was also a significant drop in serum cholesterol levels.70
References
70.Becker, E.W. et al. Clinical and biochemical evaluations of the algae Spirulina with regard to its application in the treatment of obesity. Inst. Chem. Pfanzenphysiologie. Nutrition Reports Int’l. April 1986, Vo. 33, No4, 565
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Reduces effects of radiation for the children of Chernobyl
Years after Chernobyl disaster, four million people in Ukraine and Belarus live in dangerously radioactive areas. The water, soil and food over an 11,000 square mile area are contaminated. Over 160,000 children are victims of radiation poisoning, with birth defects, leukaemia, cancer, thyroid disease, anaemia, loss of vision and appetite and depressed immune system, now called “Chernobyl AIDS.”Doctors reported Spirulina’s health benefits for child victims of Chernobyl radiation, Spirulina reduced urine radioactivity levels by 50% in only 20 days. This result was achieved by giving 5 grams a day to children at the Minsk, Belarus Institute of Radiation Medicine. The Institute program treated 100 children every 20 days.
An unpublished 1993 report confirmed 1990-91 researches, concluding, “Spirulina decreases radiation dose load received from food contaminated with radionuclides, Cesium-137 and Strontium-90. It is favourable for normalizing the adaptive potential of children’s bodies in conditions of long-lived low dose radiation,”71 Based on testing in 1990, the Belarus Ministry of Health concluded Spirulina promotes the evacuation of radionuclides from the human body. No side effects were registered. The Ministry considered this food was advisable for the treatment of people subject to radiation effects, and requested additional donations from the Earthrise Company of California and Dainippon Ink & Chemicals of Japan.72
Previous research in China in 1989 demonstrated a natural polysaccharide extract of Spirulina had a protective effect against gamma radiation in mice.74 Subsequent research showed Phycocyanin and polysaccharides enhanced the reproduction of bone marrow and cellular immunity.26 In a 1991 study of 49 kinder garden children aged 3 to 7 years in Beryozova, Spirulina was given to 49 children for 45 days. Doctors found T-cell suppressors and beneficial hormones rose, and in 83% of the children, radioactivity of the urine decreased.73
A Russian patent was awarded in 1994 for the use of Spirulina as a medical food to reduce allergic reactions from radiation sickness. The patent was based on a study of 270 children living in highly radioactive areas. They had chronic radiation sickness and elevated levels of Immune-globulin (IgE), a marker for high allergy sensitivity. Thirty-five were prescribed 20 tablets per day (about 5 Grams) for 45 days. Consuming Spirulina lowered the levels of IgE in blood, which in turn, normalized allergic sensitivities in the body.75
Research continued through 1999 in Belarus showed immune building, normalization of peroxide lipid oxidation and detoxifying effects of Spirulina supplements in children and teenagers. Scientists theorized Spirulina may form non-absorbable complexes of radionuclides through analogues such as calcium or potassium and promotes their excretion.76
References
71.Loseva, L.P. and Dardynskaya, I.V. Spirulina of radionuclides Research Institute of Radiation Medicine. Minsk, Belarus. 6th Int’l Congress of Applied Algology, Czech Republic, Sep. 9, 1993
72.Sokolovskiy, V. Corres. From the first Secretary BSSR Mission to the United Nations, May 20, 1993.
73.Belookaya, T. Corres from Chairman of Byelorussia Committee “Children of Chernobyl” May 31, 1991.
74.Qishen, P. et al. Radio-protective effect of extract from Spirulina platensis in mouse bone marrow cells studied by using the micronucleus test. Toxicology letters. 1989. 48: 165-169
75.Evets, P. et al. Means to normalize the levels of immune-globulin E, using the food supplement Spirulina, Grodenski State Medical Univ. Russian Fed Comm. Patents and Trade Patent (19) RU(11) 2005486. Jan 15, 1994.
76.Loseva, L.P. Spirulina platensis and specialities to support detoxifying pollutants and to strengthen the immune system. Research Institute of Radiation Medicine, Minsk, Belarus, presented at the 8th Int’l Congress of Applied Algology. Italy Sep. 1999.
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Spirulina Scientific Reference Library
Over 100 references covering 30 years of international research.
Click on any reference below to view the scientific paper abstract.
This library is solely for education. It is not intended as medical advice or as a guide for self-treatment. Consult a qualified health care practitioner for diagnosis or treatment of any disease or medical condition.
References and Abstracts by Health Category
Anti-Viral Activity
- Inhibition of HIV-1 replication by an aqueous extract of spirulina platensis (arthrospira platensis). by Ayehunie S., Belay A. et al. Pub. in Journal of Acquired Immune deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology 18:7-12. 1998. USA.
- Calcium Spirulan, an inhibitor of enveloped virus replication, from a blue-green alga Spirulina. by Hayashi et al. 1996. Pub. in Journal of Natural Products, 59, 83-87. Japan.
- An extract from spirulina is a selective inhibitor of herpes simples virus Type 1. by Hayashi et al. 3. Japan.
- Antiviral activity of blue-green algae cultures. by Patterson. Pub. in Journal of Phycology 29, 125-130. USA.
- AIDS Antiviral sulfolipids from cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). by K. Gustafson, et al. 1989. Pub. in Journal of the National Cancer Institute, August 16, 1989, pg 1254. USA.
Anti-Cancer Studies
- Evaluation of chemoprevention of oral cancer with spirulina. by Babu, M. et al. 1995. Pub. in Nutrition and Cancer, Vol. 24, No. 2, 197-202. India.
- Inhibitive effect and mechanism of polysaccharide of spirulina on transplanted tumor cells in mice. by Lisheng, et al. 1991. Pub. in Marine Sciences, Qingdao, N.5. pp 33-38. China.
- Enhancement of endonuclease activity and repair DNA synthesis by polysaccharide of spirulina. by Qishen, P. et al. 1988. Pub. in Chinese Genetics Journal, 15 (5) 374-381. China.
- Inhibition of experimental oral carcinogenesis by topical beta carotene. by Schwartz, et al. 1986. Harvard School of Dental Medicine. Pub. in Carcinogenesis, May 1986 7(5) 711-715. USA.
- Prevention of experimental oral cancer by extracts of spirulina-dunaliella algae. by J. Schwartz, G. Shklar, et al. 1988. Harvard School of Dental Medicine. Pub. in Nutrition and Cancer, 11, 127-134. 1988. USA.
Beta Carotene, Cancer Prevention and Health Improvement
- Bioavailability of spirulina carotenes in preschool children. by V. Annapurna, et al. 1991. National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, India. J. Clin. Biochem Nutrition. 10 145-151. India.
- Large scale nutritional supplementation with spirulina alga. by C.V. Seshadri. 1993. All India Coordinated Project on Spirulina. Shri Amm Murugappa Chettiar Research Center (MCRC) Madras, India.
- Inhibition of experimental oral carcinogenesis by topical beta carotene. by Schwartz, et al. 1986. Harvard School of Dental Medicine. Pub. in Carcinogenesis, May 1986 7(5) 711-715. USA.
- Prevention of experimental oral cancer by extracts of spirulina-dunaliella algae. by J. Schwartz, G. Shklar, et al. 1988. Harvard School of Dental Medicine. Pub. in Nutrition and Cancer, 11, 127-134. 1988. USA.
Cholesterol Reduction
- Cholesterol lowering effect of spirulina. by N. Nayaka, et al. 1988. Tokai Univ. Pub. in Nutrition Reports Int'l, Vol. 37, No. 6, 1329-1337. Japan.
- Clinical and biochemical evaluations of spirulina with regard to its application in the treatment of obesity. by E.W. Becker, et al. 1986. Inst. Chem. Pfanz. Pub. in Nutrition Reports Int'l, Vol. 33, No. 4, pg 565. Germany.
- Effects of spirulina on hypercholesterolemia and fatty liver in rats. by T. Kato and K. Takemoto. 1984. Saitama Medical College. Pub. in Japan Nutr. Foods Assoc. Journal. 37:323. Japan.
- Effects of spirulina on plasma lipoprotein lipase activity in rats. by K. Iwata. 1990. Pub. in Journal Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 36:165-171. Japan.
- Hypocholesterolemic effect of blue-green algae spirulina spirulina in albino rats. by M.A. Devi and L.V. Venkataraman. 1983. Pub. in Nutrition Reports Int'l, 28:519-530. India.
- The effect of spirulina on reduction of serum cholesterol. by N. Nayaka, et al. 1986. Tokai Univ. Pub. in Progress in Medicine, Vol. 36, No. 11. Japan.
Diabetes and Hypertension Reduction
Food and Nutrition
- Spirulina - Production & Potential. by Ripley D. Fox. 1996. Pub. by Editions Edisud, La Calade, R.N.7, 13090 Aix-en-Province, France.
- Algoculture: Spirulina, hope for a hungry world. by Ripley D. Fox. 1986. Pub. by Edisud, Aix-en-Province, France (in French).
- Current knowledge on potential health benefits of spirulina. by Amha Belay and Yoshimichi Ota. 1993. Pub. in Journal of Appl. Phycology, 5:235-241. USA.
- Health Benefits of Spirulina. by Denise Fox. 1993. In Spirulina, Algae of Life. April 1993. Bulletin No. 12. Pub. by Institute Oceanographique, Monaco.
- Large scale nutritional supplementation with spirulina alga. by C.V. Seshadri. 1993. All India Coordinated Project on Spirulina. Shri Amm Murugappa Chettiar Research Center (MCRC) Madras, India.
- Microalgae as Food and Supplement by Robert A. Kay. 1991. In Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutr. 30(6):555-573. Pub. by CRC Press. USA.
- Spirulina: a model for microalgae as human food. by Alan Jassby. 1988. In Algae and Human Affairs. edited by Lembi and Waaland. Pub. by Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
- Spirulina, the edible organism. by Orio Ciferri. 1983. In Microbiological Reviews.Dec 1983. 551-578. Italy.
Glycolipids and Sulfolipids
Hematopoiesis and Immunomodulation
- Effects of polysaccharide and phycocyanin from spirulina on peripheral blood and hematopoietic system of bone marrow in mice. by Zhang Cheng-Wu, et al.. April 1994. Nanjing Univ. China. Pub. in Proc. of Second Asia Pacific Conf. on Algal Biotech. Univ. of Malaysia. p.58. China.
- Enhancement of antibody production in mice by dietary spirulina. by Hayashi, et al. June 1994. Kagawa Nutrition Univ. Japan. Pub. in Journal of Nutr. Science and Vitaminology. Japan.
- Phagocytic potential of feline macrophages after exposure to a water soluble extract of spirulina in vitro. by M. Qureshi, et al. January 1996. Pub. in Immunopharmacology. in press. USA.
- Spirulina extracts enhances chicken macrophage functions after in vitro exposure. by M. Qureshi, et al. 1995. Pub. in Jour. Nutritional Immunology, No. 3 (4) 35-45. USA.
- Immune enhancement potential of spirulina in chickens. by M. Qureshi, et al. August 1994. Poultry Science Assoc. Dept. of Poultry Science, North Carolina State, NC. Pub. in Journal of Poultry Science Vol 73, S.1. p. 46. USA.
- Immunomodulary effects of spirulina supplementation in chickens. by M. Qureshi, et al. May 1995. North Carolina State. Pub. in Proc. of 44th Western Poultry Disease Conference, pp 117-120. USA.
- Immunostimulating activity of lipopolysaccharides from blue-green algae. by L. Besednova, et al. 1979. Pub. in Zhurnal Mikrobiologii, Epidemiologii, Immunobiologii, 56(12) pp 75-79. Russia.
- Means to normalize the levels of immunoglobulin E, using the food supplement Spirulina. by L. Evets, et al. 1994. Grodenski State Medical Univ. Russian Federation Committee of Patents and Trade. Patent (19)RU (11)2005486. Jan. 15, 1994. Russia.
- Radioprotective effect of extract from spirulina in mouse bone marrow cells studied by using the micronucleus test. by P. Qishen, Kolman et al. 1989. In Toxicology Letters 48: 165-169. China.
- Study on effect and mechanism of polysaccharides of spirulina on body immune function improvement. by G. Baojiang, et al. April 1994. South China Normal Univ. China. Pub. in Proc. of Second Asia Pacific Conf. on Algal Biotech. Univ. of Malaysia. pp 33-38. China.
- Immune response activation in channel catfish ictaluras punctatus fed spirulina enriched artemia. by B. Portoni et al. 1996. American Fisheries Society Fish Health Section. USA.
Iron Bioavailability and Prevention of Anemia
Kidney and Liver Detoxification
Lactobacillus Improvement
Malnutrition Recovery
- Spirulina - Production & Potential. by Ripley D. Fox. 1996. Pub. by Editions Edisud, La Calade, R.N.7, 13090 Aix-en-Province, France.
- Algoculture: Spirulina, hope for a hungry world. by Ripley D. Fox. 1986. Pub. by Edisud, Aix-en-Province, France (in French).
- Clinical experimentation with spirulina. by R. Ramos Galvan. 1973. National Institute of Nutrition, Mexico City, Mexico (in Spanish).
- Current knowledge on potential health benefits of spirulina. by Amha Belay and Yoshimichi Ota. 1993. In Journal of Appl. Phycology, 5:235-241. USA.
- Effectiveness of spirulina algae as food for children with protein-energy malnutrition in a tropical environment. by P. Bucaille. 1990. University Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France. Oct. 1990. Zaire. (in French).
- Food value of spirulina in humans. by C. Sautier and J. Tremolieres. 1976. Pub. in Ann. Nutrition Alim., 30:517-534. France (in French).
- Health Benefits of Spirulina. by Denise Fox. 1993. In Spirulina, Algae of Life. April 1993. Bulletin No. 12. Pub. by Institute Oceanographique, Monaco.
- Large scale nutritional supplementation with spirulina alga. by C.V. Seshadri. 1993. All India Coordinated Project on Spirulina. Shri Amm Murugappa Chettiar Research Center (MCRC) Madras, India.
- Observations on the utilization of spirulina as an adjuvant nutritive factor in treating some diseases accompanied by a nutritional deficiency. by V. Fica, et al. 1984. Clinica II Medicala, Spitalui Clinic, Bucuresti. Med. Interna 36 (3). Romania. (in Romanian).
- Spirulina in Jiangxi China. by Miao Jian Ren. 1987. Academy of Agricultural Science. Presented at Soc. Appl. Algology, Lille France Sep. 1987. China.
- The study on curative effect of zinc containing spirulina for zinc deficient children. by Wen Yonghuang, et al. 1994. Capital Medical College, Beijing. Presented at 5th Int'l Phycological Congress, Qingdao, June 1994. China.
Phycocyanin and Immune System Improvement
Polysaccharides and Immune System Improvement
- Calcium Spirulan, an inhibitor of enveloped virus replication, from a blue-green alga Spirulina. by Hayashi et al. 1996. Pub. in Journal of Natural Products, 59, 83-87. Japan.
- An extract from spirulina is a selective inhibitor of herpes simples virus Type 1. by Hayashi et al. 1993. Japan.
- Effects of polysaccharide and phycocyanin from spirulina on peripheral blood and hematopoietic system of bone marrow in mice. by Zhang Cheng-Wu, et al.. April 1994. Nanjing Univ. China. Pub. in Proc. of Second Asia Pacific Conf. on Algal Biotech. Univ. of Malaysia. p.58. China.
- Enhancement of antibody production in mice by dietary spirulina. by Hayashi, et al. June 1994. Kagawa Nutrition Univ. Japan. Pub. in Journal of Nutr. Science and Vitaminology. Japan.
- Immune enhancement potential of spirulina in chickens. by M. Quereshi, et al. August 1994. Poultry Science Assoc. Dept. of Poultry Science, North Carolina State, NC. Pub. in Journal of Poultry Science Vol 73, S.1. p. 46. USA.
- Immunomodulary effects of spirulina supplementation in chickens. by M. Qureshi, et al. May 1995. North Carolina State. Pub. in Proc. of 44th Western Poultry Disease Conference, pp 117-120. USA.
- Immunostimulating activity of lipopolysaccharides from blue-green algae. by L. Besednova, et al. 1979. Pub. in Zhurnal Mikrobiologii, Epidemiologii, Immunobiologii, 56(12) pp 75-79. Russia.
- Inhibitive effect and mechanism of polysaccharide of spirulina on transplanted tumor cells in mice. by Lisheng, et al. 1991.Pub. in Marine Sciences, Qingdao, N.5. pp 33-38. China.
- Radioprotective effect of extract from spirulina in mouse bone marrow cells studied by using the micronucleus test. by P. Qishen, Kolman et al. 1989. In Toxicology Letters 48: 165-169. China.
- Study on effect and mechanism of polysaccharides of spirulina on body immune function improvement. by G. Baojiang, et al. April 1994. South China Normal Univ. China. Pub. in Proc. of Second Asia Pacific Conf. on Algal Biotech. Univ. of Malaysia. pp 33-38. China.
- Enhancement of endonuclease activity and repair DNA synthesis by polysaccharide of spirulina. by Qishen, P. et al. 1988. Pub. in Chinese Genetics Journal, 15 (5) 374-381. China.
Radiation Protective Effect and Immune System Improvement
- Means to normalize the levels of immunoglobulin E, using the food supplement Spirulina. by L. Evets, et al. 1994. Grodenski State Medical Univ. Russian Federation Committee of Patents and Trade. Patent (19)RU (11)2005486. Jan. 15, 1994. Russia.
- Radioprotective effect of extract from spirulina in mouse bone marrow cells studied by using the micronucleus test. by P. Qishen, Kolman et al. 1989. In Toxicology Letters 48: 165-169. China.
- Spirulina- natural sorbent of radionucleides. by L.P. Loseva and I.V. Dardynskaya. Sep 1993. Research Institute of Radiation Medicine, Minsk, Belarus. 6th Int'l Congress of Applied Algology, Czech Republic. Belarus.
- Spirulina platensis and specialties to support detoxifying pollutants and to strengthen the immune system. by L.P. Loseva. Sep 1999. Research Institute of Radiation Medicine, Minsk, Belarus. 8th Int'l Congress of Applied Algology, Italy. Belarus
Spirulina Production
- Spirulina - Production & Potential. by Ripley D. Fox. 1996. Pub. by Editions Edisud, La Calade, R.N.7, 13090 Aix-en-Province, France.
- Cultivez Vorte Spiruline - Manuel de Culture Artisanale de la Spirulina. by Jean-Paul Jourdan. 1996. (in French). English version Pub. by Antenna Technology, 1999.
- Spirulina Platensis (Arthospira) Physiology, Cell Biology and Biotechnology. Edited by Avigad Vonshak, Ben Gurion University, Israel. 1997. Pub. by Taylor & Francis, Rankine Road, Basingstoke, Hants RG24 8PR UK.
- Earth Food Spirulina: How this remarkable blue-green algae can transform your health and our planet. by Robert Henrikson. 1989, Revised 1997. Pub. by Ronore Enterprises, Inc. PO Box 3937, San Rafael, CA 94912 USA.
- Production of high quality spirulina at Earthrise Farms. by Amha Belay and Yoshimichi Ota. 1994. Pub. in Proc. of Second Asia Pacific Conference on Algal Biotech. Univ. of Malaysia. USA.
- Spirulina Industry in China: Present status and future prospects. by Ding-Mei Li, Yu-Zao Qi. Pub. in Journal of Applied Phycology, 1997.
- Spirulina (Arthrospira): potential application as an animal feed supplement. by Amha Belay, Toshimitsu Kato, Yoshimichi Ota. Pub. in Journal of Applied Phycology, 1996.
- Commercial production of microalgae in the Asia-Pacific rim. by Yuan-Kun Lee. National University of Singapore. Pub. in Journal of Applied Phycology,1997.
- Production of Spirulina rich in GLA and sulfolipids. by Hubert Durand-Chastel. Pub. in Intl Symposium Marine Cyanobacteria, Institute Oceanographique, Paris Nov. 1997.
- Spirulina National Symposium (India). by C.V. Seshadri and N. Jeeji Bai. 1992. Pub. by Shri Amm Murugappa Chettiar Research Center (MDRC), Madras, India.
- Algoculture: Spirulina, hope for a hungry world. by Ripley D. Fox. 1986. Pub. by Edisud, Aix-en-Province, France (in French).
- Biotechnology & Utilization of Algae: The Indian Experience. by L.V. Venkataraman and E.W. Becker. 1985. Pub. by Sharada Press, Mangalore, India.
- Spirulina, Algae of Life. April 1993. Bulletin Special No. 12. Pub. by Institute Oceanographique, Monaco.
- Micro-Algal Biotechnology. edited by Borowitska. 1986. Pub. by Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Human Clinical Research by Country
Belarus
China
Germany
India
Japan
Macedonia
Mexico
Romania
Russia
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© 2000 Robert Henrikson, Ronore Enterprises, Inc.
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